Dimitrie Cantemir– philosopher, historian, composer, musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer

Dimitrie Cantemir (October 26, 1673 – August 21, 1723) was twice Prince of romanian province Moldavia (in March-April 1693 and in 1710–1711). He was also a prolific man of letters – philosopher, historian, composer, musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer.


His name is spelled Dimitrie Cantemir in Romanian, Dmitri Konstantinovich Kantemir (Дмитрий Константинович Кантемир) in Russian, Dimitri Kantemiroğlu in Turkish, Dymitr Kantemir in Polish and Demetre Cantemir in several other languages.

Life and family

Born in Silişteni (renamed Dimitrie Cantemir and now located in Vaslui County, Romania), Dimitrie was the son of Moldavian Voivode Constantin Cantemir (and brother to Antioh Cantemir, himself Prince), of the low-ranking boyar Cantemireşti family. His mother, Ana Bantăş, was a learned woman of noble origins. (Cantemir never forgot his paternal ancestry, but while in Constantinople because of his name similarity locals inspired him to claim descent from Khan Temir, an early 17th century khan of the Budjak Tatars – see Moldavian Magnate Wars' on some occasions'.)
His education began at home, where he learned Greek and Latin and acquired a profound knowledge of the classics. Between 1687 and 1710 he lived in forced exile in Istanbul, where he learned Turkish and studied the history of the Ottoman Empire at the Patriarchate's Greek Academy, where he also composed music.

In 1693, he succeeded his father as Prince of Moldavia – in name only, as the Ottomans appointed Constantin Duca, favoured by Wallachian Prince and, despite many shared goals, forever rival of the Cantemirs Constantin Brâncoveanu; his bid for the throne was successful only in 1710, after two rules by his brother (whom he represented as envoy in the Ottoman capital). He had ruled only for less than a year when he joined Peter the Great in his campaign against the Ottoman Empire (see Russo-Turkish War, 1710–1711) and placed Moldavia under Russian suzerainty, after a secret agreement signed in Lutsk.

Defeated by the Turks in the battle of Stănileşti (July 18–July 22, 1711), Cantemir sought refuge in Russia, where he and his family finally settled (he was accompanied by a sizeable boyar retinue, including the chronicler Ioan Neculce). There, he was awarded the title of Knyaz (Prince) of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great and received the title of Reichsfürst (Prince) of the Holy Roman Empire from Charles VI. He died at his Dmitrovka estate near Oryol in 1723 (on the very day he was awarded the Roman-German princely title). In 1935, his remains were carried to Iaşi.

He was married twice: in 1699, to Kassandra Cantacuzene (1682–1713), member of the Cantacuzino family (the daughter of Prince Şerban Cantacuzino), and in 1717 to Anastasia Trubetskaya (1700–1755; from the Trubetskoy house).

Cantemir's children were rather prominent in Russian history. His elder daughter Maria Cantemir (1700–1754) attracted the attention of Peter the Great who allegedly planned to divorce his wife Catherine and marry her. Upon Catherine's ascension to the throne, she was forced to enter a convent. His son Antioh Cantemir (Antiokh Dmitrievich in Russian) (1708–1744) was also the Russian ambassador to London and Paris, a prominent satirical poet, and Voltaire's friend. Another son, Constantin (Konstantin Dmitrievich; 1703–1747), was implicated in the Galitzine conspiracy against Empress Anne and exiled to Siberia. Finally, Dimitrie's younger daughter Smaragda (1720–1761), the wife of Prince Dmitriy Mikhailovich Galitzine, was a friend of Empress Elizabeth and one of the great beauties of her time.

History, geography, philosophy and linguistics

In 1714 Cantemir became a member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. Between 1711 and 1719 he wrote his most important creations. Cantemir was known as one of the greatest linguists of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being well versed in Oriental scholarship. His oeuvre is voluminous, diverse, and original; although some of his scientific writings contain unconfirmed theories and inaccuracies, his expertise, sagacity, and groundbreaking researches are widely acknowledged.
The best known is his History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire. This volume circulated throughout Europe in manuscript for a number of years. It was finally printed in 1734 in London, and later it was translated and printed in Germany and France. It remained the seminal work on the Ottoman Empire up to the middle of the 19th century – notably, it was used as reference by Edward Gibbon for his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Afterwards, the work was largely contested, for some of its sources were doubtful.

In 1714, at the request of the Royal Academy in Berlin, Cantemir wrote the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of Moldavia, Descriptio Moldaviae. As many of his books it circulated first in manuscript and was only later published in Germany (first in 1769 in a geographical magazine, and then in 1771 the first edition as a book). Around the same time he prepared a manuscript map of Moldavia, the first real map of the country. It contained a lot of geographical detail as well as administrative information. Printed in 1737 in the Netherlands, it has been used by all cartographers of the time as an inspiration for their own maps of Moldavia.

Other writings:

A history of Oriental music, which is no longer extant.

The first critical history of Romania as a whole, under the name of Hronicul vechimii a romano-moldo-valahilor – aprox. "Chronicle of the durability of Romans-Moldavians-Wallachians" (1719–1722).

The first Romanian language novel, the cryptic Historia Hieroglyphica (1705), to which he furnished a key, and in which the principal persons are represented by mythological beasts; it is the history of the two Wallachian ruling houses of Brâncoveanu and Cantacuzino.

A philosophical treatise, written in Romanian and also in Greek, translated into Arabic, under the title Divanul sau Gâlceava Înţeleptului cu lumea sau Giudeţul sufletului cu trupul (Iaşi, 1698) – Le divan ou la dispute du sage avec le monde ou le jugement de l'âme avec le corps in French ("The Divan or The Wise Man's Parley with the World or The Judgement of the Soul with the Body").

An unfinished second treatise (Istanbul, 1700), Sacrosantae scientiae indepingibilis imagio or Imaginea ştiinţei sacre, care nu se poate zugrăvi ("The Image of the Sacred, Undepictable Science").

An introduction to Islam written for Europeans, and a biography of Jan Baptist van Helmont.

Due to his many esteemed works he won great renown at the high courts of Europe. His name is among those who were considered to be the brightest minds of the world on a plaque at the Library of Sainte-Genevieve in Paris, next to those of Leibnitz, Newton, Piron, and other great thinkers.

Musicology

Some of the works are part of the regular repertory of Turkish music ensembles. In 1999, the Bezmara ensemble have recorded an album, Yitik Sesin Peşinde ("In Search of the Lost Sound") from the Cantemir transcriptions using period instruments.

In 2000, Golden Horn Records released a CD exploring Cantemir's compositions, European composers of Cantemir's era, and folk music of Moldavia. Featuring solo improvisations on kemençe (Turkish bowed fiddle) and tanbur (Turkish long-necked plucked lute) by famed master Íhsan Özgen and early music ensemble Lux Musica directed by Linda Burman-Hall, the project fulfills an ambitious endeavor by Özgen and Burman-Hall to meld early European music styles and instruments with today's Turkish art music styles and instruments, with Cantemir as their touchstone.

In 2009, Alia Vox published a CD and booklet of music performed by the Hespèrion XXI ensemble, including seven of Cantemir's compositions along with other Turkish, Armenian and Sephardic music.

He had around 40 compositions in the Ottoman music of which few are performed today, but his greatest service to the Ottoman music is the fact that he helped survival of 350 instrumental pieces by recording them in a certain notation (the ebced) script he developed in his work Edvar which he presented to Sultan Ahmed III.

The most recent publication of his abovementioned work, reprint along with complete transcription and explanations, is: Kantemiroğlu, Kitâbu 'İlmi'l-Mûsiki alâ Vechi'l-Hurûfât, Mûsikiyi Harflerle Tesbit ve İcrâ İlminin Kitabı, Yalçın Tura, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Istanbul 2001, ISBN 975-08-0167-9. Romanian historian and musicologist Eugenia Popescu-Judetz has numerous works on Cantemir, the most recent of which being a monograph (in English, also translated into Turkish): Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, Theorist and Composer of Turkish Music, Eugenia Popescu-Judetz, Pan

Dimitrie Cantemir

Dimitrie Cantemir (n. 26 octombrie 1673 - d. 21 august 1723), domn al Moldovei (martie - aprilie 1693 şi 1710 - 1711), autor, cărturar, enciclopedist, etnograf, geograf, filozof, istoric, lingvist, muzicolog, om politic şi scriitor român.

Viaţa şi cariera politică

Dimitrie Cantemir s-a născut la 26 octombrie 1673, în localitatea Silişteni din comuna Fălciu, azi comuna Dimitrie Cantemir din judeţul Vaslui, în partea de sud a oraşului Huşi. A fost fiul lui Constantin şi al Anei. La 15 ani a fost nevoit să plece la Constantinopol (1688-1690), unde a stat 17 ani, ca zălog al tatălui său pe lângă Înalta Poartă, înlocuindu-l pe Antioh, devenit ulterior domn al Moldovei.

În perioada martie - aprilie 1693 , după moartea tatălui său, a fost domn al Moldovei, dar Înalta Poarta nu l-a confirmat, astfel încât s-a întors la Constantinopol pentru a-şi continua studiile. Cu prilejul unui război turco-austriac, a efectuat o călătorie în Europa Centrală, ajungând şi în Banat, la Timişoara. A avut astfel ocazia să se convingă de unitatea lingvistică a poporului român. Antioh, fratele mai mare, şi-a însuşit întreaga moştenire, lăsându-l într-o situaţie precară. Din 1695 a fost capuchehaie la Constantinopol, al fratelui său Antioh, acesta fiind ales domn.

S-a căsătorit cu fiica lui Şerban Cantacuzino, Casandra, care i-a dăruit doi copii, Maria şi Antioh (viitorul poet, scriitor şi diplomat rus Antioh Dimitrievici Cantemir (1709 - 1744).)

Turcii l-au înscăunat pe Dimitrie Cantemir la Iaşi în 1710, având încredere în el, dar noul domn-cărturar a încheiat la Luţk în Rusia, în 2 aprilie-13 aprilie 1711, un tratat secret de alianţă cu Petru cel Mare, în speranţa eliberării ţării de sub dominaţia turcă. În politica externă s-a orientat spre Rusia. În subsidiar, s-a afirmat chiar faptul că ar fi încercat alipirea Moldovei la Imperiul Rus, aşa cum făcuse şi Ucraina. A fost un adept al domniei autoritare, adversar al atotputernicei mari boierimi şi a fost împotriva transformării ţăranilor liberi în şerbi.

După numai un an de domnie (1710 - 1711), s-a alăturat lui Petru cel Mare în războiul ruso-turc şi a plasat Moldova sub suzeranitate rusească. După ce au fost înfrânţi de turci în Lupta de la Stănileşti - ţinutul Fălciu pe Prut, neputându-se întoarce în Moldova, a emigrat în Rusia, unde a rămas cu familia sa. A devenit consilier intim al lui Petru I şi a desfăşurat o activitate ştiinţifică rodnică. Lângă Harkov i s-a acordat un întins domeniu feudal şi a fost investit cu titlul de Principe Serenissim al Rusiei la 1 august 1711.

A murit pe moşia sa Dimitrievka la Harkov în 1723 şi a fost înmormântat în Rusia. Actualmente, osemintele sale se odihnesc în Biserica Trei Ierarhi din Iaşi.

Dimitrie Cantemir - cărturar

A fost primul român ales membru al Academiei din Berlin în 1714. În opera lui Cantemir, influenţată de umanismul Renaşterii şi de gândirea înaintată din Rusia, s-au oglindit cele mai importante probleme ridicate de dezvoltarea social-istorică a Moldovei de la sfârşitul secolului al XVII-lea şi începutul secolului al XVIII-lea.

Opere principale
Divanul sau Gâlceava înţeleptului cu lumea sau Giudeţul sufletului cu trupul, scrisă în română şi tipărită la Iaşi în 1698. Această operă este prima lucrare filozofică românească. În această lucrare întâlnim disputele medievale despre timp, suflet, natură sau conştiinţă. Dimitrie Cantemir sugerează superioritatea omului asupra celorlalte vieţuitoare, face din om un stăpân al lumii, susţine superioritatea vieţii spirituale asupra condiţiei biologice a omului, încearcă să definească concepte filosofice şi să alcătuiască o terminologie filosofică.

Imaginea tainică a ştiinţei sacrosante 1700, lucrare filosofică în care încearcă să integreze fizica într-un sistem teist, un fel de împăcare între ştiinţă şi religie, între determinismul ştiinţific şi metafizica medievală. Cantemir manifestă un interes deosebit pentru astrologie şi ştiinţele oculte, sacre, specifice Renaşterii.

Istoria ieroglifică, scrisă la Constantinopol în română (1703 - 1705). Este considerată prima încercare de roman politic-social. Cantemir satirizează lupta pentru domnie dintre partidele boiereşti din ţările române. Această luptă alegorică se reflectă printr-o dispută filosofică între două principii, simbolizate de Inorog şi Corb. Lucrarea cuprinde cugetări, proverbe şi versuri care reflectă influenţa poeziei populare.

Istoria Imperiului Otoman (Istoria creşterii şi descreşterii curţii otomane), redactată în latină (Historia incrementorum atque decrementorum Aulae Othomanicae) între 1714 şi 1716. În această lucrare, Dimitrie Cantemir a relatat istoria imperiului otoman şi a analizat cauzele care ar fi putut duce la destrămarea sa. A insistat şi asupra posibilităţilor popoarelor asuprite de a-şi recuceri libertatea. Lucrarea a fost tradusă şi publicată în limbile engleză, franceză şi germană.

Hronicul vechimei a romano-moldo-vlahilor, scris mai întâi în latină dar tradus apoi de autor în română (1719 - 1722), cuprinde istoria noastră de la origini până la descălecare. Susţine ideea cronicarilor: originea comună a tuturor românilor. Pentru scrierea acestei lucrări, Dimitrie Cantemir a consultat peste 150 de izvoare române şi străine în limbile latină, greacă, polonă şi rusă.

Descriptio Moldaviae (Descrierea Moldovei), scrisă în latină (1714 - 1716), când trăia în Rusia, la cererea Academiei din Berlin.
Descriptio Moldaviae cuprinde trei părţi:

Prima parte este consacrată descrierii geografice a Moldovei, a munţilor, a apelor şi a câmpiilor. Dimitrie Cantemir a elaborat prima hartă a Moldovei. A prezentat flora şi fauna, târgurile şi capitalele ţării de-a lungul timpului.

În partea a doua a lucrării este înfăţişată organizarea politică şi administrativă a ţării. S-au făcut referiri detaliate la forma de stat, alegerea sau îndepărtarea din scaun a domnilor, la obiceiurile prilejuite de înscăunarea domnilor sau de mazilirea lor, de logodnă, nunţi, înmormântări.

În ultima parte a lucrării există informaţii despre graiul moldovenilor, despre slovele folosite, care la început au fost latineşti, după pilda tuturor celorlalte popoare a căror limbă încă e alcătuită din limba cea română, iar apoi înlocuite cu cele slavoneşti. Lucrarea prezintă interes nu numai pentru descrierea geografică sau politică bine documentată, ci şi pentru observaţiile etnografice şi folclorice. Dimitrie Cantemir a fost primul nostru cărturar care a cuprins în sfera cercetărilor sale etnografia şi folclorul.

Alte opere

Compendium universae logices institutionis (Prescurtare a sistemului logicii generale)


Monarchiarum physica examinatio (Cercetarea naturală a monarhiilor)

Sistema religiae mahomedane

Cartea ştiinţei muzicii (Kitab-i-musiki)

Kitab-i-musiki, Cartea muzicii, scrisă în limba turcă, este una dintre primele lucrări ale savantului domnitor, concepută în perioada vieţii acestuia din Istanbul. Lucrarea cuprinde un studiu aprofundat al muzicii otomane laice şi religioase, savantul punând în discuţie importanţa muzicii religioase şi influenţarea acesteia de către muzica bisericească bizantină. Studiul se referă la compozitori otomani, cuprinzând ilustrarea curentelor şi tematicilor, exemplificate printr-o redare a notelor şi gamelor într-un sistem de note. Este prima lucrare dedicată muzicii, concepută într-un stil savant. Finalul studiului este însoţit de o culegere de melodii a diverselor compoziţii, precum şi un număr de 20 de creaţii proprii. Datorită acestei lucrări, Dimitrie Cantemir a intrat în istoria muzicală a Turciei ca fondator al muzicii laice şi studios al celei religioase sub numele de Cantemiroglu (fiul lui Cantemir).

Vlad III the Impaler (DRACULA)

Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia (c. 1431 – December 1476), more commonly known as the Impaler (Romanian: Vlad Ţepeş ) or Dracula, was a three-time voivode of Wallachia, ruling mainly from 1456 to 1462.


Historically, Vlad is best known for his resistance against the Ottoman Empire and its expansion[ and for the cruel punishments he imposed on his enemies.

In the English-speaking world, Vlad III is perhaps most commonly known for inspiring the name of the vampire in Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula.

Names

His Romanian surname Dracula (also spelled "Draculea", "Drakulya,"drackuliea"), which Vlad was referred to in several documents, means "Son of the dragon" and points to his father, Vlad Dracul, who received that moniker from his subjects because he had joined the Order of the Dragon. Dracul, derived from the Latin word Draco meant "dragon", derived from the Greek word Δράκων (Dracon), though in modern Romanian it means "devil".

His post-mortem moniker of "Ţepeş" ("Impaler") originated in his killing opponents by impalement, a practice popularized by medieval Transylvanian pamphlets. In Turkish, he was known as "Kazıklı Voyvoda" which means "Impaler Prince".

Early life

Vlad was born in Sighişoara, Transylvania in the winter of 1431 to Vlad II Dracul, future voivode of Wallachia, and his wife, Princess Cneajna of Moldavia, daughter of Alexandru cel Bun. He had two older half-brothers, Mircea II and Vlad Călugărul, from his father's first marriage, and a younger brother, Radu cel Frumos.


In the year of his birth Vlad's father, known under the nickname the Dragon (Romanian: Dracul) had traveled to Nuremberg, today located in Germany, where he had been vested into the Order of the Dragon. At the age of five, young Vlad was also initiated into the Order.

Like his father, who was the son of the Wallachian voivode Mircea the Elder, in the early years of childhood, the future ruling prince Vlad the Impaler got a distinguished education, and mastered German and Latin. During the first reign of Vlad II, Vlad the Impaler accompanied his father to Targoviste - capital of Wallachia at that time.

The Byzantine chancellor Mikhail Doukas showed that, at Targoviste, the sons of boyars and ruling princes got a distinguished education from either Romanian or Greek scholars, coming from Constantinople. The young prince learned for sure; combat skills, geography, mathematics, science, language; Romanian, Latin, Bulgarian (church Slavic) and the classical arts and philosophy.

Life in Edirne

In 1436, Dracul ascended the throne of Wallachia. He was ousted in 1442 by rival factions in league with Hungary, but secured Ottoman support for his return agreeing to pay tribute to the Sultan and also send his two younger sons, Vlad and Radu the Handsome, to the Ottoman court, to serve as hostages of his loyalty.


Vlad was locked up in prison and often whipped and beaten because of his verbal abuse towards his captors and his stubborn behavior, while his younger brother Radu the Handsome was much easier to control. Radu converted to Islam, entered the service of Sultan Murad II's son, Mehmed II (later known as the Conqueror), and was allowed into the Ottoman royal court.

These years had a great influence on Vlad's character and led to Vlad's well-known hatred for the Ottoman Turks, the Janissary, his brother Radu the Handsome for becoming an Ottoman, and the young Ottoman prince Mehmed II (even after he became sultan). According to McNally and Florescu, he was jealous of his fathers preference for his elder half-brothers Mircea II and Vlad Călugărul, he also distrusted his own father for trading him to the Turks and betraying the Order of the Dragon's oath to fight them. It was in Turkey where Vlad first witnessed the act of impalement (the Ottomans often beheaded traitors and deserters).

Vlad was later released, corrected and taken to be educated in logic, the Quran and the Turkish and Persian language and literature. He would speak these languages fluently in his later years . He and his brother were also trained in warfare and riding horses. The boys' father, Vlad Dracul, was released quickly, in 1443, and with the support of the Ottomans he returned to Wallachia and took back his throne from Basarab II.

Vlad the Impaler as Aegeas, the Roman proconsul in Patras, crucifying Saint Andrew. Approximately 1470–1480, Belvedere Galleries, Vienna

In later accounts of these stories, Vlad's atrocities against the people of Wallachia have sometimes been interpreted as attempts to enforce his own moral code upon his country. According to the pamphlets, he appears to have been particularly concerned with female chastity. Maidens who lost their virginity, adulterous wives, and unchaste widows were all targets of Vlad's cruelty. Vlad also insisted that his people be honest and hard-working. Merchants who cheated their customers were likely to find themselves mounted on a stake beside common thieves.















Russian stories about Vlad the Impaler


The Russian or the Slavic version of the stories about Vlad the Impaler called "Skazanie o Drakule voevode" ("The Tale of Warlord Dracula") is thought to have been written sometime between 1481 and 1486. Copies were made from the 15th century to the 18th century, of which some twenty-two extant manuscripts survive in Russian archives. The oldest one, from 1490, ends as follows: "First written in the year Byzantine calendar (1486), on 13 February; then transcribed by me, the sinner Elfrosin, in the year 6998 (1490), on 28 January". The Tales of Prince Dracula is neither chronological nor consistent, but mostly a collection of anecdotes of literary and historical value concerning Vlad Ţepeş.

There are 19 anecdotes in The Tales of Prince Dracula which are longer and more constructed than the German stories. It can be divided into two sections: The first 13 episodes are non-chronological events most likely closer to the original folkloric oral tradition about Vlad. The last six episodes are thought to have been written by a scholar who collected them, because they are chronological and seem to be more structured. The stories begin with a short introduction and the anecdote about the nailing of hats to ambassadors heads. They end with Vlad's death and information about his family.

Of the 19 anecdotes there are ten that have similarities to the German stories. Although there are similarities between the Russian and the German stories about Vlad, there is a clear distinction with the attitude towards him. The Russian stories tend to give him a more positive File: he is depicted as a great ruler, a brave soldier and a just sovereign. Stories of atrocities tend to seem to be justified as the actions of a strong ruler. Of the 19 anecdotes, only four seem to have exaggerated violence. Some elements of the anecdotes were later added to Russian stories about Ivan the Terrible of Russia.

The nationality and identity of the original writer of the anecdotes Dracula is disputed. The two most plausible explanations are that the writer was either a Romanian priest or a monk from Transylvania, or a Romanian or Moldavian from the court of Stephen the Great in Moldova. One theory claims the writer was a Russian diplomat named Fyodor Kuritsyn.

Vampire legend

See also: Dracula#Historical and geographical references

It is most likely that Bram Stoker found the name for his vampire from William Wilkinson's book, An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia: with various Political Observations Relating to Them. It is known that Stoker made notes about this book. It is also suggested by some that because Stoker was a friend of a Hungarian professor (Ármin Vámbéry) from Budapest, Vlad's name might have been mentioned by this friend. Regardless of how the name came to Stoker's attention, the cruel history of the Impaler would have readily lent itself to Stoker's purposes. However, recent research suggests that Stoker actually knew little about the Prince of Wallachia.

The legend of the vampire was and still is deeply rooted in that region. There have always been vampire-like creatures in various stories from across the world. However, the vampire, as he became known in Europe, largely originated in Southern Slavic folklore – although the tale is absent in Romanian culture. A veritable epidemic of vampirism swept through Eastern Europe beginning in the late 17th century and continuing through the 1700s. The number of reported cases rose dramatically in Hungary and the Balkans. From the Balkans, the "plague" spread westward into Germany, Italy, France, England, and Spain. Travelers returning from the Balkans brought with them tales of the undead, igniting an interest in the vampire that has continued to this day. Philosophers in the West began to study the phenomenon. It was during this period that Ludovico Fatinelli wrote his famous treatise on vampirism in Hungary. It was also during this period that authors and playwrights first began to explore the vampire legend. Stoker's novel was merely the culminating work of a long series of works that were inspired by the reports coming from the Balkans and Hungary.

Given the history of the vampire legend in Europe, it is perhaps natural that Stoker should place his great vampire in the heart of the region that gave birth to the story. Once Stoker had determined on a locality, Vlad Dracula would stand out as one of the most notorious rulers of the selected region. He was obscure enough that few would recognize the name and those who did would know him for his acts of brutal cruelty; Dracula was a natural candidate for vampirism.

Romanian attitudes

Romanian folklore and literature, on the other hand, paints Vlad Ţepeş as a hero. His reputation in his native country as a man who stood up to both foreign and domestic enemies gives him the virtual opposite symbolism of Stoker's vampire. In Romania he is considered one of the greatest leaders in the country's history, and was voted one of "100 Greatest Romanians" in the "Mari Români" television series aired in 2006.

A contemporary portrait of Vlad III, rediscovered by Romanian historians in the late 19th century, had been featured in the gallery of horrors at Innsbruck's Ambras Castle. This original has been lost to history, but a larger copy, painted anonymously in the latter half of the sixteenth century, now hangs in the same gallery. This copy, unlike the all the cryptoportraits contemporary with Vlad III, seems to have given him a Habsburg lip, although he was not a member of the Habsburg lineage.

His image in modern Romanian culture clashes with foreign perceptions. It is the last part of a rather popular 19th century poem by Mihai Eminescu, "Scrisoarea a III-a", that helped turn Vlad's image into modern legend, by having him stand as a figure to contrast with presumed social decay under the Phanariotes and the political scene of the 19th century (even suggesting that Vlad's violent methods be applied as a cure). Notably though, the first author to depict Vlad as a Romanian heroic character was a Transylvanian who probably never travelled to Wallachia, Ioan Budai-Deleanu. Around 1800 he wrote a Romanian epic heroicomic poem, "Ţiganiada", in which prince Vlad Ţepeş stars as a fierce warrior fighting the Ottomans. Well in advance of Romanian literature at that time, this work, unlike Eminescu's, remained unpublished and ignored for a century, and did not exert any influence.

All accounts of his life describe him as ruthless, but only the ones originating from his Saxon detractors paint him as sadistic or insane. These pamphlets continued to be published long after his death, though usually for lurid entertainment rather than propaganda purposes. It has largely been forgotten until recently that his tenacious efforts against the Ottoman Empire won him many staunch supporters in his lifetime, not just in modern day Romania but in the Kingdom of Hungary, Poland, the Republic of Venice, the Holy See, and the Balkans. A Hungarian court chronicler reported that King Matthias "had acted in opposition to general opinion" in Hungary when he had Dracula imprisoned, and this played a considerable part in Matthias reversing his unpopular decision. During his time as a "distinguished prisoner" before being fully pardoned and allowed to reconquer Wallachia, Vlad was hailed as a Christian hero by visitors from all over Europe.

Film adaptations


Unlike the fictional Dracula films, there have been comparatively few movies about the man who inspired the vampire. The 1975 documentary In Search of Dracula explores the legend of Vlad the Impaler. He is played in the film by Christopher Lee, known for his numerous portrayals of the fictional Dracula in films ranging from the 1950s to the 1970s.

In 1979, a Romanian film called Vlad Ţepeş (sometimes known, in other countries, as The True Story of Vlad the Impaler) was released, based on his six-year reign and brief return to power in late 1476. The character is portrayed in a mostly positive perspective though the film also mentions the excesses of his regime and his practice of impalement. The lead character is played by Ştefan Sileanu.




Dark Prince: The True Story of Dracula, a film released in 2000, tells the life story of Vlad the Impaler mostly accurately while ending fictionally with Vlad rising from the grave and gaining eternal worldly life as well as supernatural abilities, implying that he has now become the fictional Dracula. Vlad is played in the film by Rudolf Martin.

Numerous film adaptations of Bram Stoker's novel Dracula and original works derived from it have incorporated Vlad the Impaler's history into the fictional Count Dracula's past, depicting them as the same person, including, among others: the 1972–1979 comic book series The Tomb of Dracula from Marvel Comics, the 1973 film Dracula, starring Jack Palance, and the 1992 film Bram Stoker's Dracula, starring Gary Oldman as Dracula, apparently making a likeness to Vlad the Impaler

Vlad Ţepeş

Vlad Ţepeş (n. noiembrie/decembrie 1431 - d. decembrie 1476), denumit şi Vlad Drăculea (sau Dracula, de către străini), a domnit în Ţara Românească în anii 1448, 1456-1462 şi 1476.


S-a născut în cetatea Sighişoara din Transilvania, ca fiu al lui Vlad al II-lea Dracul şi al unei nobile transilvănene.

A fost căsătorit de două ori : întâi cu o nobilă din Transilvania şi apoi cu Ilona Szilagyi, verişoară a lui Matei Corvin.

A avut trei băieţi: Mihail şi Vlad din prima căsătorie, Mihnea I cel Rău din a doua.

În timpul domniei sale, Ţara Românească şi-a obţinut temporar independenţa faţă de Imperiul Otoman. Vlad Ţepeş a devenit vestit prin cruzime şi pentru că obişnuia să îşi tragă inamicii în ţeapă. Din porunca sa 41 de oameni au fost executaţi astfel, iar 300 au fost arşi. Datorită conflictelor cu negustorii braşoveni, aceştia l-au caracterizat, propagandistic, ca pe un principe de o cruzime demonică.

În 1453, resturile Imperiului Bizantin sunt cucerite de otomani, care obţineau astfel controlul asupra Constantinopolului (actualul Istanbul) şi ameninţau Europa. Imperiul Otoman ajunge să stăpânească mare parte din Balcani (teritoriile statelor actuale Serbia, parţial Ungaria, parţial România, Bulgaria, Albania şi Grecia), extinderea spre occident oprindu-se la porţile Vienei, al cărei asediu eşuează. În acest context istoric, Vlad Ţepeş a luptat pentru a-şi apăra domnia şi ţara, folosind împotriva inamicilor metodele de disuasiune specifice epocii, din care făceau parte şi execuţiile şi supliciile cu caracter exemplar şi de intimidare.

Originea supranumelui „Drăculea“ şi a poreclei „Ţepeş“
 
Tatăl său, Vlad al II-lea Dracul, fusese primit în Ordinul Dragonului. Ordinul - care poate fi comparat cu cel al Cavalerilor de Malta sau cu cel al Cavalerilor Teutoni - era o societate militaro-religioasă, ale cărei baze fuseseră puse în 1387 de Sigismund de Luxemburg, rege al Ungariei (mai târziu împărat al Sfântului Imperiu Roman) şi de cea de-a doua soţie a sa, Barbara Cillei.


Există multe povestiri şi anecdote despre Vlad al III-lea Drăculea. Era recunoscut pentru ambiţia de a impune cinstea şi ordinea. Aproape orice infracţiune, de la minciună şi furt până la omor, putea fi pedepsită prin trasul în ţeapă. Fiind sigur de eficacitatea legilor sale, Vlad al III-lea a lăsat, se spune, o cupă de aur la vedere, în piaţa centrală din Târgovişte. Cupa putea fi folosită de călătorii însetaţi, însă trebuia să rămână la locul ei. Conform surselor istorice, în timpul domniei sale cupa nu ar fi fost niciodată furată şi ar fi rămas aproape nefolosită.

Vlad al III-lea ţinea de asemenea ca toţi locuitorii ţării să muncească şi să fie utili comunităţii. Îi privea pe bolnavi, vagabonzi şi cerşetori ca pe nişte hoţi. Ca urmare, într-o zi toti vagabonzii si bolnavii din Ţara Româneacă au fost invitaţi la curtea domnească din Târgovişte, la un ospăţ. După ce au mâncat şi au băut, domnitorul i-a întrebat dacă ar vrea să nu mai fie niciodată săraci. După ce a primit un răspuns afirmativ, a ordonat ca hala să fie închisă şi incendiată. Nimeni nu a supravieţuit.

O altă poveste spune că doi călugări sosiţi în Ţara Românească l-au vizitat pe Vlad la castelul său. Călugării îi cunoşteau reputaţia şi, când el le-a cerut părerea despre domnia sa, au răspuns fiecare în mod diferit. Unul a spus că Vlad era aspru, dar era prinţ, în vreme ce celălalt i-a condamnat fără ocol cruzimile. În funcţie de versiune, fie unul, fie celălalt dintre cei doi călugări a fost tras în ţeapă.

După altă legendă, Vlad ar fi înscenat un furt (o pungă cu 50 de galbeni) unui boier din Sfatul Ţării, după care acesta, în faţa domnitorului, a pretins că i se furaseră 100 de galbeni. Pentru minciuna sa, a fost tras în ţeapă.

Conflictul cu Imperiul Otoman

În 1459 Ţepeş refuză să mai plătească tribut turcilor (10.000 galbeni anual). Se pare că această răzvrătire s-a datorat existenţei unui proiect de cruciadă impotriva otomanilor, cruciadă susţinută de Papă şi în care regele Ungariei, Matei Corvin, ar fi urmat să joace rolul principal ( acesta chiar primeşte de la Papă suma de 40.000 galbeni, suficientă pentru a echipa 12.000 de oameni şi 10 nave de război).

În acest context politic, Vlad Ţepeş încheie o alianţă cu Matei Corvin, probabil la începutul lui 1460, pe care otomanii ar fi vrut să o împiedice. Mai mult, aceştia vor încerca prin intermediul lui Hamza paşa, beiul de Nicopole, şi al diacului sultanului, Catavolinos, să-l prindă pe Vlad prin vicleşug, fără succes însă. Odată dejucate planurile otomanilor şi pedepsiţi cei doi (au fost traşi în ţeapă împreună cu toţi soldaţii turci care-i însoţeau), Vlad Ţepeş organizează o campanie surpriză la sud de Dunăre în iarna 1461-1462.

O întinsă regiune, de la Obluciţa la Novoe Selo şi de la vărsarea Dunării în Marea Neagră până la Rahova, a fost devastată. Mai mult, cetatea Nicopole fiind ocupată prin vicleşug, peste 20.000 de turci au pierit sub armele valahilor, numărul celor ucişi fiind indicat de însuşi Vlad Ţepeş într-o scrisoare adresată lui Matei Corvin. Tot în această scrisoare, expediată din Giurgiu la 11 februarie 1462, Vlad îi solicita în mod insistent sprijin regelui ungar. Deşi l-a asigurat la 4 martie 1462 că îi va veni în ajutor, Matei Corvin a părăsit Buda abia la sfârşitul lui august, când campania otomană era deja încheiată.

În ceea ce-l priveşte pe Mahomed al II-lea, acesta, surprins de sfidarea lui Ţepeş, îi va pregăti un răspuns pe măsură. În primăvara lui 1462, sultanul, în fruntea unei armate uriaşe, cca 100-120.000 de oameni (a doua ca mărime după aceea care cucerise Constantinopolul) plus 175 de nave de război al căror scop era acela de a cuceri Chilia, se va îndrepta spre Dunăre. Efectivele domnului valah nu depăşeau, după estimările cele mai generoase, 30.000 de oşteni. Deşi Vlad încearcă să-i oprească pe turci la Dunăre, în dreptul cetăţii Turnu, aceştia, la adăpostul nopţii, reuşesc să treacă fluviul îndreptându-se direct spre Târgovişte (4 iunie 1462).

În aceste condiţii Ţepeş va aplica tactica hărţuirii: pustiirea pământului - mai ales drumul spre Târgovişte -, otrăvirea fântânilor, atacarea detaşamentelor turceşti plecate după hrană. În această atmosferă apasătoare în care oştile turceşti, flămânde şi înfricoşate, înaintau prin ţara pustiită, a avut loc marea lovitură a lui Vlad Ţepeş, atacul de noapte din 16-17 iunie 1462, menit să demoralizeze şi mai mult oastea otomană, atac despre care pomenesc toate izvoarele relative la campania din 1462. Ţinta atacului a fost însuşi sultanul, însă acesta a scăpat, cortul său fiind confundat cu al unui vizir. Totuşi efectul psihologic al atacului a fost important. Mulţi turci au fost ucişi, iar sultanul, conform relatărilor, "a părăsit în ascuns tabăra în chip ruşinos"; văzând "marea pierdere suferită de ai săi" a dat ordin de retragere. În apropierea Târgoviştei îl aştepta un spectacol care a băgat groaza în oştile sale: o pădure de ţepi în care atârnau o mulţime de turci ucişi în înainte sau în timpul bătăliei; în faţa acestei privelişti turcii "s-au înspăimântat foarte tare", iar sultanul a recunoscut că "nu poate să ia ţara unui bărbat care face lucruri aşa de mari" şi care "ar fi vrednic de mai mult".

Cu excepţia cronicilor turceşti, toate celelalte izvoare mărturisesc înfrângerea sultanului, care a fost silit "să se întoarcă în fugă spre Dunăre cu mari pierderi printre ai săi şi cu ruşinea de a fi dat dosul". Oastea turcă s-a îndreptat spre Dunăre, aşa de repede încât la 11 iulie 1462 sultanul ajunsese la Adrianopol. Conform cronicarului bizantin Chalcocondil, sultanul l-a lăsat la plecare, la Târgovişte, ca domn pe fratele lui Ţepeş, Radu cel Frumos, în ideea ca acesta să atragă de partea sa pe toţi cei ce i se împotriveau lui Ţepeş. Paşa de Nicopole urma să asigure sprijin armat lui Radu.

Perioada care a urmat a fost foarte tulbure pentru istoria Ţării Româneşti, cei doi fraţi căutând fiecare să-şi întărească forţele pentru a-şi elimina adversarul. Spre deosebire de Vlad Ţepeş care dorea continuarea luptei antiotomane, Radu cel Frumos oferea boierilor pacea şi prietenia cu sultanul. Aceştia trec până la urmă de partea lui. În aceste condiţii, părăsit de cea mai mare parte a boierilor, dar având încă o oaste destul de numeroasă cu care se pare că în jurul datei de 8 septembrie ar fi dobândit chiar o ultimă victorie asupra adversarilor săi, în octombrie 1462 Ţepeş trece în Transilvania pentru a se întâlni cu aliatul său Matei Corvin.

Cum acesta nu venise nici pregătit, nici prea hotărât de luptă, a decis destul de repede să-şi schimbe planul iniţial, recunoscând situaţia existentă în Ţara Românească şi renunţând să-l sprijine pe Tepeş. Mai mult, la decizia regelui ar fi contribuit şi o presupusă scrisoare a lui Vlad către sultan în care domnul muntean ar fi cerut iertare şi, mai mult decât atât, s-ar fi obligat să-l ajute împotriva oştilor maghiare. Drept urmare, în noiembrie 1462 Vlad Ţepeş, în loc să primească ajutorul aliatului său, este arestat sub acuzaţia de trădare şi încarcerat la Vişegrad vreme de 12 ani. După Vişegrad, e silit să locuiască aproape 2 ani la Buda, cu domiciliu forţat. Va fi eliberat în 1475, la cererea lui Ştefan cel Mare, domnul Moldovei, în contextul presiunilor turceşti tot mai mari asupra teritoriilor de la nord de Dunăre.

Ultima domnie, sfârşitul vieţii şi locul mormântului


Conform legendei, atunci a fost momentul în care soţia lui Vlad, pentru a scăpa de temniţa turcească, s-a sinucis aruncându-se de pe o creastă înaltă - o scenă exploatată de Francis Ford Coppola în filmul Bram Stoker's Dracula. Vlad a reuşit să scape asediului fortăreţei sale, folosind un pasaj secret prin munte. Ajutat de câţiva ţărani din satul Arefu, a reuşit să ajungă în Transilvania, unde s-a întâlnit cu regele Ungariei, Matei Corvin. Însă, Matei l-a arestat şi l-a întemniţat în capitala Ungariei, Visegrad. Motivul arestului poate fi discutat, pentru că dupa unii istorici faptul ca a fost direct dus la Budapesta este pus pe seama necesităţii lui Vlad de a fi protejat de saşii care voiau să îl omoare. Vlad a fost recunoscut ca prinţ al Valahiei pentru a treia oară în 1475, însă s-a bucurat de o perioadă foarte scurtă de domnie. A fost asasinat la sfârşitul lunii decembrie 1476. Corpul său a fost decapitat şi capul trimis sultanului, care l-a aşezat într-o ţeapă, ca dovadă a triumfului asupra lui Vlad Ţepeş. S-a emis ipoteza ca „Drăculea“ ar fi fost îngropat la Mănăstirea Snagov, pe o insulă din apropierea Bucureştilor. Examinările recente au arătat că „mormântul“ lui Ţepeş de la mănăstire conţine doar câteva oase de cal datate din neolitic şi nu rămăşiţele adevărate ale domnului valah. După opinia reputatului istoric Constantin Rezachevici, mormântul acestuia ar fi pe locaţia mănăstirii Comana, ctitoria voievodului.

Dracula

Cartea lui Bram Stoker, Dracula, nu se bazează în mod direct pe domnia lui Vlad Drăculea, ci este o ficţiune ce se petrece în Transilvania şi Anglia secolului XIX. De pe urma succesului romanului, Transilvania este asociată personajului fictiv Dracula.

Scriitorul britanic Bram Stoker putea uşor consulta la Royal Library din Londra câteva din acele gravuri săseşti din secolul XV, ce se găseau şi în colecţiile de la British Museum, în care Vlad Ţepeş este descris ca un monstru, un vampir ce bea sânge de om şi un mare amator de cruzimi. A avut probabil acces şi la cartea History of Moldavia and Wallachia a lui Johann Christian Engel, care îl descrie pe Vlad Ţepeş ca un tiran sângeros, ceea ce i-a dat probabil ideea să ia prinţul Valahiei ca model pentru personajul său fictiv, Dracula. Unii istorici au propus ideea că Stoker ar fi avut o relaţie de amiciţie cu un profesor maghiar de la Universitatea din Budapesta, Arminius Vambery (Hermann Vamberger), şi este posibil ca acesta să îi fi dat informaţii despre Vlad Ţepeş. Mai mult, faptul că Dr. Abraham Van Helsing îl menţionează pe prietenul său Arminius în romanul din 1897 ca sursă a cunoştinţelor sale despre Vlad al III-lea numit Dracula, pare să sprijine această ipoteză. Trebuie reţinut şi faptul că aceasta pare să fie singura cauză, neexistând o legătură reală între Vlad Drăculea din istorie (1431-1476) şi mitul literar modern al vampirului care este cartea lui Bram Stoker. Acesta s-a folosit de surse folclorice, menţiuni istorice şi experienţe personale pentru a realiza un personaj complex. Pe de altă parte, merită menţionat faptul că detractorii politici principali ai lui Vlad - în general saşii - se foloseau de sensul de diavol al cuvântului drac pentru a umbri reputaţia voievodului. Astfel, asocierea dintre cele două sensuri ale cuvântului, dragon şi diavol, şi porecla Drăculea ar putea să explice de ce Vlad al III-lea Ţepeş a fost asociat de către Bram Stoker cu vampirismul. Un important element simbolic al Ordinului Dragonului, din care s-a inspirat Stoker pentru a-şi crea personajul demonic, era îmbrăcămintea oficială a Ordinului - o capă neagră peste o haină roşie - ce era purtată doar vinerea pentru a comemora Patimile lui Iisus Hristos. Tot Bram Stoker a avut ideea să asociaze acestei legende europene un animal sud-american: liliacul hematofag zis Vampir (Desmodus rotundus).

Ecranizări

Pe lângă nenumăratele filme cu Dracula, care nu au decât vagi legături cu adevăratul Vlad Ţepeş, două încearcă să se apropie de realitate. În anul 1979, Doru Năstase a regizat un film istoric despre viaţa domnitorului. În rolul lui Vlad a jucat Ştefan Sileanu. Au mai interpretat: Alexandru Repan, Ernest Maftei, Emanoil Petruţ. O portretizare a copilăriei domnitorului încearcă Sergiu Nicolaescu, în filmul său „Mircea” (1989) - rol jucat de Vlad Nemeş. Desigur, aceasta reprezintă doar o licenţă, întrucât la moartea marelui voievod şi domn, Vlad nici măcar nu se născuse. Astfel, se încearcă o explicaţie asupra genezei comportamentului de mai târziu al lui Ţepeş: dragostea pentru ţară şi groaznica pedeapsă care i-a dat porecla.

Mircea Eliade-historian of religion, fiction writer, philosopher

Mircea Eliade March 13 [O.S. February 28] 1907 – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion, fiction writer, philosopher, and professor at the University of Chicago. He was a leading interpreter of religious experience, who established paradigms in religious studies that persist to this day. His theory that hierophanies form the basis of religion, splitting the human experience of reality into sacred and profane space and time, has proved influential. One of his most influential contributions to religious studies was his theory of Eternal Return, which holds that myths and rituals do not simply commemorate hierophanies, but, at least to the minds of the religious, actually participate in them. In academia, the Eternal Return has become one of the most widely accepted ways of understanding the purpose of myth and ritual.


His literary works belong to the fantasy and autobiographical genres. The best known are the novels Maitreyi ("La Nuit Bengali" or "Bengal Nights"), Noaptea de Sânziene ("The Forbidden Forest"), Isabel şi apele diavolului ("Isabel and the Devil's Waters") and the Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent, the novellas Domnişoara Christina ("Miss Christina") and Tinereţe fără tinereţe ("Youth Without Youth"), and the short stories Secretul doctorului Honigberger ("The Secret of Dr. Honigberger") and La Ţigănci ("With the Gypsy Girls").

Early in his life, Eliade was a noted journalist and essayist, a disciple of Romanian far right philosopher and journalist Nae Ionescu, and member of the literary society Criterion. He also served as cultural attaché to the United Kingdom and Portugal. Several times during the late 1930s, Eliade publicly expressed his support for the Iron Guard, a fascist and antisemitic political organization. His political involvement at the time, as well as his other far right connections, were the frequent topic of criticism after World War II.

Remarked for his vast erudition, Eliade had fluent command of five languages (Romanian, French, German, Italian, and English) and a reading knowledge of three others (Hebrew, Persian, and Sanskrit). He was elected a posthumous member of the Romanian Academy.



Biography

Childhood

Born in Bucharest, he was the son of Romanian Land Forces officer Gheorghe Eliade (whose original surname was Leremia and Jeana née Vasilescu. An Orthodox believer, Gheorghe Eliade registered his son's birth four days before the actual date, to coincide with the liturgical calendar feast of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. Mircea Eliade had a sister, Corina, the mother of semiologist Sorin Alexandrescu. His family moved between Tecuci and Bucharest, ultimately settling in the capital in 1914, and purchasing a house on Melodiei Street, near Piaţa Rosetti, where Mircea Eliade resided until late in his teens.

Eliade kept a particularly fond memory of his childhood and, later in life, wrote about the impact various unusual episodes and encounters had on his mind. In one instance during the World War I Romanian Campaign, when Eliade was about ten years of age, he witnessed the bombing of Bucharest by German zeppelins and the patriotic fervor in the occupied capital at news that Romania was able to stop the Central Powers' advance into Moldavia.He notably described this stage in his life as marked by an unrepeatable epiphany. Recalling his entrance into a drawing room that an "eerie iridescent light" had turned into "a fairy-tale palace", he wrote,

"I practiced for many years [the] exercise of recapturing that epiphanic moment, and I would always find again the same plenitude. I would slip into it as into a fragment of time devoid of duration—without beginning, middle, or end. During my last years of lycée, when I struggled with profound attacks of melancholy, I still succeeded at times in returning to the golden green light of that afternoon. [...] But even though the beatitude was the same, it was now impossible to bear because it aggravated my sadness too much. By this time I knew the world to which the drawing room belonged [...] was a world forever lost."

Robert Ellwood, a professor of religion who did his graduate studies under Mircea Eliade, saw this type of nostalgia for the past as one of the most characteristic themes in Eliade's life and academic writings.

Adolescence and literary debut


After completing his primary education at the school on Mântuleasa Street, Eliade attended the Spiru Haret National College in the same class as Arşavir Acterian, Haig Acterian, and Petre Viforeanu (and several years the senior of Nicolae Steinhardt, who eventually became a close friend of Eliade's).Among his other colleagues was future philosopher Constantin Noica[ and Noica's friend, future art historian Barbu Brezianu.

As a child, Eliade was fascinated with the natural world, which formed the setting of his very first literary attempts, as well as with Romanian folklore and the Christian faith as expressed by peasants. Growing up, he aimed to find and record what he believed was the common source of all religious traditions. The young Eliade's interest in physical exercise and adventure led him to pursue mountaineering and sailing, and he also joined the Romanian Boy Scouts. With a group of friends, he designed and sailed a boat on the Danube, from Tulcea to the Black Sea. In parallel, Eliade grew estranged from the educational environment, becoming dsenchanted with the discipline required and obsessed with the idea that he was uglier and less virile than his colleagues. In order to cultivate his willpower, he would force himself to swallow insects and only slept four to five hours a night.At one point, Eliade was flunking four subjects, among which was the study oif Romanian language.

Instead, he became interested in natural science and chemistry, as well as the occult, and wrote short pieces on entomological subjects.Despite his father's concern that he was in danger of losing his already weak eyesight, Eliade read passionately. One of his favorite authors was Honoré de Balzac, whose work he studied carefully. Eliade also became acquainted with the modernist short stories of Giovanni Papini and social anthropology studies by James George Frazer.His interest in the two writers led him to learn Italian and English in private, and he also began studying Persian and Hebrew. At the time, Eliade became acquainted with Saadi's poems and the ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh. He was also interested in philosophy—studying, among others, Socrates, Vasile Conta, and the Stoics Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, and read works of history—the two Romanian historians who influenced him from early on were Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu and Nicolae Iorga. His first published work was the 1921 Inamicul viermelui de mătase ("The Silkworm's Enemy"), followed by Cum am găsit piatra filosofală ("How I Found the Philosophers' Stone"). Four years later, Eliade completed work on his debut volume, the autobiographical Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent.

University studies and Indian sojourn

Between 1925 and 1928, he attended the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Philosophy and Letters in 1928, earning his diploma with a study on Early Modern Italian philosopher Tommaso Campanella. In 1927, Eliade traveled to Italy, where he met Papini and collaborated with the scholar Giuseppe Tucci.

It was during his student years that Eliade met Nae Ionescu, who lectured in Logic, becoming one of his disciples and friends.He was especially attracted to Ionescu's radical ideas and his interest in religion, which signified a break with the rationalist tradition represented by senior academics such as Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, Dimitrie Gusti, and Tudor Vianu (all of whom owed inspiration to the defunct literary society Junimea, albeit in varying degrees).

Eliade's scholarly works began after a long period of study in British India, at the University of Calcutta. Finding that the Maharaja of Kassimbazar sponsored European scholars to study in India, Eliade applied and was granted an allowance for four years, which was later doubled by a Romanian scholarship. In autumn 1928, he sailed for Calcutta to study Sanskrit and philosophy under Surendranath Dasgupta, a Bengali Cambridge alumnus and professor at Calcutta University, the author of a five volume History of Indian Philosophy. Before reaching the Indian subcontinent, Eliade also made a brief visit to Egypt. Once there, he visited large areas of the region, and spent a short period at a Himalayan ashram.

He studied the basics of Indian philosophy, and, in parallel, learned Sanskrit, Pali and Bengali under Dasgupta's direction. At the time, he also became interested in the actions of Mahatma Gandhi, whom he met personally, and the Satyagraha as a phenomenon; later, Eliade adapted Gandhist ideas in his discourse on spirituality and Romania. In 1930, while living with Dasgupta, Eliade fell in love with his daughter, Maitreyi Devi, later writing a barely-disguised autobiographical novel Maitreyi (also known as "La Nuit Bengali" or "Bengal Nights"), in which he claimed that he carried on a physical relationship with her.

Eliade received his PhD in 1933, with a thesis on Yoga practices The book, which was translated into French three years later, had significant impact in academia, both in Romania and abroad.He later recalled that the book was an early step for understanding not just Indian religious practices, but also Romanian spirituality. During the same period, Eliade began a correspondence with the Ceylonese-born philosopher Ananda Coomaraswamy. In 1936–1937, he functioned as honorary assistant for Ionescu's course, lecturing in Metaphysics.

In 1933, Mircea Eliade had a physical relationship with the actress Sorana Ţopa, while falling in love with Nina Mareş, whom he ultimately married. The latter, introduced to him by his new friend Mihail Sebastian, already had a daughter, Giza, from a man who had divorced her. Eliade subsequently adopted Giza, and the three of them moved to an apartment at 141 Dacia Boulevard. He left his residence in 1936, during a trip he made to the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany, when he first visited London, Oxford and Berlin.

Criterion and Cuvântul

After contributing various and generally polemical pieces in university magazines, Eliade came to the attention of journalist Pamfil Şeicaru, who invited him to collaborate on the nationalist paper Cuvântul, which was noted for its harsh tones. By then, Cuvântul was also hosting articles by Ionescu.


As one of the figures in the Criterion literary society (1933–1934), Eliade's initial encounter with the traditional far right was polemical: the group's conferences were stormed by members of A. C. Cuza's National-Christian Defense League, who objected to what they viewed as pacifism and addressed antisemitic insults to several speakers, including Sebastian; in 1933, he was among the signers of a manifesto opposing Nazi Germany's state-enforced racism. In 1934, at a time when Sebastian was publicly insulted by Nae Ionescu, who prefaced his book (De două mii de ani...) with thoughts on the "eternal damnation" of Jews, Mircea Eliade spoke out against this perspective, and commented that Ionescu's references to the verdict "Outside the Church there is no salvation" contradicted the notion of God's omnipotence. However, he contended that Ionescu's text was not evidence of antisemitism.

In 1936, reflecting on the early history of the Romanian Kingdom and its Jewish community, he deplored the expulsion of Jewish savants from Romanian soil, making specific references to Moses Gaster, Heimann Hariton Tiktin and Lazăr Şăineanu.Eliade's views at the time focused on innovation—in the summer of 1933, he replied to an anti-modernist critique written by George Călinescu:

"All I wish for is a deep change, a complete transformation. But, for God's sake, in any direction other than spirituality".

He and friends Emil Cioran and Constantin Noica were by then under the influence of Trăirism, a school of thought that was formed around the ideals expressed by Ionescu. A form of existentialism, Trăirism was also the synthesis of traditional and newer right-wing beliefs. Early on, a public polemic was sparked between Eliade and Camil Petrescu: the two eventually reconciled and later became good friends. Like Mihail Sebastian, who was himself becoming influenced by Ionescu, he maintained contacts with intellectuals from all sides of the political spectrum: their entourage included the right-wing Dan Botta and Mircea Vulcănescu, the non-political Petrescu and Ionel Jianu, and Belu Zilber, who was a member of the illegal Romanian Communist Party. The group also included Haig Acterian, Mihail Polihroniade, Petru Comarnescu, Marietta Sadova and Floria Capsali.

He was also close to Marcel Avramescu, a former Surrealist writer whom he introduced to the works of René Guénon. A doctor in the Kabbalah and future Romanian Orthodox cleric, Avramescu joined Eliade in editing the short-lived esoteric magazine Memra (the only one of its kind in Romania). Among the intellectuals who attended his lectures were Mihail Şora (whom he deemed his favorite student), Eugen Schileru and Miron Constantinescu—known later as, respectively, a philosopher, an art critic, and a sociologist and political figure of the communist regime. Mariana Klein, who became Şora's wife, was one of Eliade's female students, and later authored works on his scholarship.

Eliade later recounted that he had himself enlisted Zilber as a Cuvântul contributor, in order for him to provide a Marxist perspective on the issues discussed by the journal. Their relation soured in 1935, when the latter publicly accused Eliade of serving as an agent for the secret police, Siguranţa Statului (Sebastian answered to the statement by alleging that Zilber was himself a secret agent, and the latter eventually retracted his claim).

1930s political transition

Eliade's articles before and after his adherence to the principles of the Iron Guard (or, as it was usually known at the time, the Legionary Movement), beginning with his famous Itinerar spiritual ("Spiritual Itinerary", serialized in Cuvântul in 1927), center on several political ideals advocated by the far right. They displayed his rejection of liberalism and the modernizing goals of the 1848 Wallachian revolution (perceived as "an abstract apology of Mankind" and "ape-like imitation of [Western] Europe"), as well as for democracy itself (accusing it of "managing to crush all attempts at national renaissance", and later praising Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy on the grounds that, according to Eliade, "[in Italy,] he who thinks for himself is promoted to the highest office in the shortest of times"). He approved of an ethnic nationalist state centered on the Orthodox Church (in 1927, despite his still-vivid interest in Theosophy, he recommended young intellectuals "the return to the Church"), which he opposed to, among others, the secular nationalism of Constantin Rădulescu-Motru; referring to this particular ideal as "Romanianism", Eliade was, in 1934, still viewing it as "neither fascism, nor chauvinism". Eliade was especially dissatisfied with the incidence of unemployment among intellectuals, whose careers in state-financed institutions had been rendered uncertain by the Great Depression.


In 1936, Eliade was the focus of a campaign in the far right press, being targeted for having authored "pornography" in his Domnişoara Christina and Isabel şi apele diavolului (similar accusations were aimed at other cultural figures, including Tudor Arghezi and Geo Bogza). Assessments of Eliade's work were in sharp contrast to one another: also in 1936, Eliade accepted an award from the Romanian Writers' Society, of which he had been a member since 1934. In summer 1937, through an official decision which came as a result of the accusations, and despite student protests, he was stripped of his position at the University. Eliade decided to sue the Ministry of Education, asking for a symbolic compensation of 1 leu.He won the trial, and regained his position as Nae Ionescu's assistant.

Nevertheless, by 1937, he gave his intellectual support to the Iron Guard, in which he saw "a Christian revolution aimed at creating a new Romania",and a group able "to reconcile Romania with God". His articles of the time, published in Iron Guard papers such as Sfarmă Piatră and Buna Vestire, contain ample praises of the movement's leaders (Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ion Moţa, Vasile Marin, and Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul). The transition he went through was similar to that of his fellow generation members and close collaborators—among the notable exceptions to this rule were Petru Comarnescu, sociologist Henri H. Stahl and future dramatist Eugène Ionesco, as well as Sebastian.

He eventually enrolled in the Totul pentru Ţară ("Everything for the Fatherland" Party), the political expression of the Iron Guard, and contributed to its 1937 electoral campaign in Prahova County—as indicated by his inclusion on a list of party members with county-level responsibilities (published in Buna Vestire).

Internment and diplomatic service

The stance taken by Eliade resulted in his arrest on July 14, 1938 after a crackdown on the Iron Guard authorized by King Carol II. At the time of his arrest, he had just interrupted a column on Provincia şi legionarismul ("The Province and Legionary Ideology") in Vremea, having been singled out by Prime Minister Armand Călinescu as an author of Iron Guard propaganda.


Eliade was kept for three weeks in a cell at the Siguranţa Statului Headquarters, in an attempt to have him sign a "declaration of dissociation" with the Iron Guard, but he refused to do so. In the first week of August he was transferred to a makeshift camp at Miercurea-Ciuc. When Eliade began coughing blood in October 1938, he was taken to a clinic in Moroeni.Eliade was simply released on November 12, and subsequently spent his time writing his play Iphigenia (also known as Ifigenia). In April 1940, with the help of Alexandru Rosetti, became the Cultural Attaché to the United Kingdom, a posting cut short when Romanian-British foreign relations were broken.

After leaving London he was assigned the office of Counsel and Press Officer (later Cultural Attaché) to the Romanian Embassy in Portugal, where he was kept on as diplomat by the National Legionary State (the Iron Guard government) and, ultimately, by Ion Antonescu's regime. His office involved disseminating propaganda in favor of the Romanian state. In February 1941, weeks after the bloody Legionary Rebellion was crushed by Antonescu, Iphigenia was staged by the National Theater Bucharest—the play soon raised doubts that it owed inspiration to the Iron Guard's ideology, and even that its inclusion in the program was a Legionary attempt at subversion.

In 1942, Eliade authored a volume in praise of the Estado Novo, established in Portugal by António de Oliveira Salazar claiming that "The Salazarian state, a Christian and totalitarian one, is first and foremost based on love". On July 7 of the same year, he was received by Salazar himself, who asked assigned Eliade the task of warning Antonescu to withdraw the Romanian Army from the Eastern Front ("[In his place], I would not be grinding it in Russia"). Eliade also claimed that such contacts with the leader of a neutral country had made him the target for Gestapo surveillance, but that he had managed to communicate Salazar's advice to Mihai Antonescu, Romania's Foreign Minister.

In autumn 1943, he traveled to occupied France, where he rejoined Emil Cioran, also meeting with scholar Georges Dumézil and the collaborationist writer Paul Morand. At the same time, he applied for a position of lecturer at the University of Bucharest, but withdrew from the race, leaving Constantin Noica and Ion Zamfirescu to dispute the position, in front of a panel of academics comprising Lucian Blaga and Dimitrie Gusti (Zamfirescu's eventual selection, going against Blaga's recommendation, was to be the topic of a controversy). In his private notes, Eliade wrote that he took no further interest in the office, because his visits abroad had convinced him that he had "something great to say", and that he could not function within the confines of "a minor culture". Also during the war, Eliade traveled to Berlin, where he met and conversed with controversial political theorist Carl Schmitt, and frequently visited Francoist Spain, where he notably attended the 1944 Lusitano-Spanish scientific congress in Córdoba. It was during his trips to Spain that Eliade met philosophers José Ortega y Gasset and Eugeni d'Ors. He maintained a friendship with d'Ors, and met him again on several occasions after the war.

Nina Eliade fell ill with uterine cancer and died during their stay in Lisbon, in late 1944. As the widower later wrote, the disease was probably caused by an abortion procedure she had undergone at an early stage of their relationship. He came to suffer with clinical depression, which increased as Romania and her Axis allies suffered major defeats on the Eastern Front. Contemplating a return to Romania as a soldier or a monk, he was on a continuous search for effective antidepressants, medicating himself with passion flower extract, and, eventually, with methamphetamine. This was probably not his first experience with drugs: vague mentions in his notebooks have been read as indication that Mircea Eliade was taking opium during his travels to Calcutta. Later, discussing the works of Aldous Huxley, Eliade wrote that the British author's use of mescaline as a source of inspiration had something in common with his own experience, indicating 1945 as a date of reference and adding that it was "needless to explain why that is".

Early exile

At signs that the Romanian communist regime was about to take hold, Eliade opted not to return to the country. On September 16, 1945, he moved to France with his adoptive daughter Giza. Once there, he resumed contacts with Dumézil, who helped him recover his position in academia. On Dumézil's recommendation, he taught at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris. It was estimated that, at the time, it was not uncommon for him to work 15 hours a day. Eliade married a second time, to the Romanian exile Christinel Cotescu. His second wife, the descendant of boyars, was the sister-in-law of prestigious conductor Ionel Perlea.


Together with Emil Cioran and other Romanian expatriates, Eliade rallied with the former diplomat Alexandru Busuioceanu, helping him publicize anti-communist opinion to the Western European public. He was also briefly involved in publishing a Romanian-language magazine, titled Luceafărul ("The Morning Star"), and was again in contact with Mihail Şora, who had been granted a scholarship to study in France, and by Şora's wife Mariana. In 1947, he was facing material constraints, and Ananda Coomaraswamy found him a job as a French-language teacher in the United States, at a school in Arizona; the arrangement ended upon Coomaraswamy's death in September.

Beginning in 1948, he wrote for the journal Critique, edited by French thinker Georges Bataille[. The following year, he went on a visit to Italy, where he wrote the first 300 pages of his novel Noaptea de Sânziene (he visited the country a third time in 1952). He collaborated with Carl Jung and the Eranos circle after Henry Corbin recommended him in 1949,and wrote for the Antaios magazine (edited by Ernst Jünger). In 1950, Eliade began attending Eranos conferences, meeting Jung, Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn, Gershom Scholem and Paul Radin. He described Eranos as "one of the most creative cultural experiences of the modern Western world."

In October 1956, he moved to the United States, settling in Chicago the following year. He had been invited by Joachim Wach to give a series of lectures at Wach's home institution, the University of Chicago.Eliade and Wach are generally admitted to be the founders of the "Chicago school" that basically defined the study of religions for the second half of the 20th century. Upon Wach's death before the lectures were delivered, Eliade was appointed as his replacement, becoming, in 1964, the Sewell Avery Distinguished Service Professor of the History of Religions. Beginning in 1954, with the first edition of his volume on Eternal Return, Eliade also enjoyed commercial success: the book went through several editions under different titles, which sold over 100,000 copies.

In 1966, Mircea Eliade became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He also worked as editor-in-chief of Macmillan Publishers' Encyclopedia of Religion, and, in 1968, lectured in religious history at the University of California, Santa Barbara. It was also during that period that Mircea Eliade completed his voluminous and influential History of Religious Ideas, which grouped together the overviews of his main original interpretations of religious history. He occasionally traveled out of the United States, notably attending the Congress for the History of Religions in Marburg (1960) and visiting Sweden and Norway (1970).

Final years and death

Initially, Eliade was attacked with virulence by the Romanian Communist Party press, chiefly by România Liberă—which described him as "the Iron Guard's ideologue, enemy of the working class, apologist of Salazar's dictatorship". However, the regime also made secretive attempts to enlist his and Cioran's support: Haig Acterian's widow, theater director Marietta Sadova, was sent to Paris in order to re-establish contacts with the two.Although the move was planned by Romanian officials, her encounters were to be used as evidence incriminating her at a February 1960 trial for treason (where Constantin Noica and Dinu Pillat were the main defendants). Romania's secret police, the Securitate, also portrayed Eliade as a spy for the British Secret Intelligence Service and a former agent of the Gestapo.

He was slowly rehabilitated at home beginning in the early 1960s, under the rule of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. In the 1970s, Eliade was approached by the Nicolae Ceauşescu regime in several ways, in order to have him return. The move was prompted by the officially-sanctioned nationalism and Romania's claim to independence from the Eastern Bloc, as both phenomena came to see Eliade's prestige as an asset. An unprecedented event occurred with the interview that was granted by Mircea Eliade to poet Adrian Păunescu, during the latters 1970 visit to Chicago; Eliade complimented both Păunescu's activism and his support for official tenets, expressing a belief that

"the youth of Eastern Europe is clearly superior to that of Western Europe. [...] I am convinced that, within ten years, the young revolutionary generation shan't be behaving as does today the noisy minority of Western contesters. [...] Eastern youth have seen the abolition of traditional institutions, have accepted it [...] and are not yet content with the structures enforced, but rather seek to improve them".

Păunescu's visit to Chicago was followed by those of the nationalist official writer Eugen Barbu and by Eliade's friend Constantin Noica (who had since been released from jail). At the time, Eliade contemplated returning to Romania, but was eventually persuaded by fellow Romanian intellectuals in exile (including Radio Free Europe's Virgil Ierunca and Monica Lovinescu) to reject Communist proposals. In 1977, he joined other exiled Romanian intellectuals in signing a telegram protesting the repressive measures newly enforced by the Ceauşescu regime.Writing in 2007, Romanian anthropologist Andrei Oişteanu recounted how, around 1984, the Securitate unsuccessfully pressured to become an agent of influence in Eliade's Chicagoan circle.

During his later years, Eliade's fascist past was progressively exposed publicly, the stress of which probably contributed to the decline of his health.By then, his writing career was hampered by severe arthritis. The last academic honors bestowed upon him were the French Academy's Bordin Prize (1977) and the title of Doctor Honoris Causa, granted by the University of Washington (1985).

Mircea Eliade died at the Bernard Mitchell Hospital in April 1986. Eight days previously, he suffered a stroke while reading Emil Cioran's Exercises of Admiration, and had subsequently lost his speech function. Four months before, a fire had destroyed part of his office at the Meadville Lombard Theological School (an event which he had interpreted as an omen). Eliade's Romanian disciple Ioan Petru Culianu, who recalled the scientific community's reaction to the news, described Eliade's death as "a mahaparanirvana", thus comparing it to the passing of Gautama Buddha.His body was cremated in Chicago, and the funeral ceremony was held on University grounds, at the Rockefeller Chapel. It was attended by 1,200 people, and included a public reading of Eliade's text in which he recalled the epiphany of his childhood—the lecture was given by novelist Saul Bellow, Eliade's colleague at the University.

The scholar

The general nature of religion

In his work on the history of religion, Eliade is most highly regarded for his writings on Shamanism, Yoga and what he called the eternal return—the implicit belief, supposedly present in religious thought in general, that religious behavior is not only an imitation of, but also a participation in, sacred events, and thus restores the mythical time of origins. Eliade's thinking was in part influenced by Rudolf Otto, Gerardus van der Leeuw, Nae Ionescu and the writings of the Traditionalist School (René Guénon and Julius Evola).For instance, Eliade's The Sacred and the Profane partially builds on Otto's The Idea of the Holy to show how religion emerges from the experience of the sacred, and myths of time and nature.

Eliade is noted for his attempt to find broad, cross-cultural parallels and unities in religion, particularly in myths. Wendy Doniger, Eliade's colleague from 1978 until his death, notes that "Eliade argued boldly for universals where he might more safely have argued for widely prevalent patterns". His Treatise on the History of Religions was praised by French philologist Georges Dumézil for its coherence and ability to synthesize diverse and distinct mythologies.

Robert Ellwood describes Eliade's approach to religion as follows. Eliade approaches religion by imagining an ideally "religious" person, whom he calls homo religiosus in his writings. Eliade's theories basically describe how this homo religiosus would view the world.This does not mean that all religious practitioners actually think and act like homo religiosus. Instead, it means that religious behavior "says through its own language" that the world is as homo religiosus would see it, whether or not the real-life participants in religious behavior are aware of it.However, Ellwood notes that Eliade "tends to slide over that last qualification", implying that traditional societies actually thought like homo religiosus.

Sacred and profane

An endowed chair in the History of Religions at the University of Chicago Divinity School was named after Eliade in recognition of his wide contribution to the research on this subject; the current (and first incumbent) holder of this chair is Wendy Doniger.

To evaluate the legacy of Eliade and Joachim Wach within the discipline of the history of religions, the University of Chicago chose 2006 (the intermediate year between the 50th anniversary of Wach's death and the 100th anniversary of Eliade's birth), to hold a two-day conference in order to reflect upon their academic contributions and their political lives in their social and historical contexts, as well as the relationship between their works and their lives.

In 1990, after the Romanian Revolution, Eliade was elected posthumously to the Romanian Academy. In Romania, Mircea Eliade's legacy in the field of the history of religions is mirrored by the journal Archaeus (founded 1997, and affiliated with the University of Bucharest Faculty of History). The 6th European Association for the Study of Religion and International Association for the History of Religions Special Conference on Religious History of Europe and Asia took place from September 20 to September 23, 2006, in Bucharest. An important section of the Congress was dedicated to the memory of Mircea Eliade, whose legacy in the field of history of religions was scrutinized by various scholars, some of whom were his direct students at the University of Chicago.

As Antohi noted, Eliade, Emil Cioran and Constantin Noica "represent in Romanian culture ultimate expressions of excellence, [Eliade and Cioran] being regarded as proof that Romania's interwar culture (and, by extension, Romanian culture as a whole) was able to reach the ultimate levels of depth, sophistication and creativity." A Romanian Television 1 poll carried out in 2006 nominated Mircea Eliade as the 7th Greatest Romanian in history; his case was argued by the writer Dragoş Bucurenci (see 100 greatest Romanians). His name was given to a boulevard in the northern Bucharest area of Primăverii, to a street in Cluj-Napoca, and to high schools in Bucharest, Sighişoara, and Reşiţa. The Eliades' house on Melodiei Street was torn down during the communist regime, and an apartment block was raised in its place; his second residence, on Dacia Boulevard, features a memorial plaque in his honor.

Eliade's image in contemporary culture also has political implications. Historian Irina Livezeanu proposed that the respect he enjoys in Romania is marched by that of other "nationalist thinkers and politicians" who "have reentered the contemporary scene largely as heroes of a pre- and anticommunist past", including Nae Ionescu and Cioran, but also Ion Antonescu and Nichifor Crainic. In parallel, according to Oişteanu (who relied his assessment on Eliade's own personal notes), Eliade's interest in the American hippie community was reciprocated by members of the latter, some of whom reportedly viewed Eliade as "a guru".

Eliade has also been hailed as an inspiration by German representatives of the Neue Rechte, claiming legacy from the Conservative Revolutionary movement (among them is the controversial magazine Junge Freiheit and the essayist Karlheinz Weißmann). In 2007, Florin Ţurcanu's biographical volume on Eliade was issued in a German translation by the Antaios publishing house, which is mouthpiece for the Neue Rechte.The edition was not reviewed by the mainstream German press. Other sections of the European far right also claim Eliade as an inspiration, and consider his contacts with the Iron Guard to be a merit—among their representatives are the Italian neofascist Claudio Mutti and Romanian groups who trace their origin to the Legionary Movement.

Portrayals, filmography and dramatizations

Early on, Mircea Eliade's novels were the subject of satire: before the two of them became friends, Nicolae Steinhardt, using the pen name Antisthius, authored and published parodies of them. Maitreyi Devi, who strongly objected to Eliade's account of their encounter and relationship, wrote her own novel as a reply to his Maitreyi; written in Bengali, it was titled Na Hanyate (translated into English as "It Does Not Die"). Several authors, including Ioan Petru Culianu, have drawn a parallel between Eugène Ionesco's Absurdist play of 1959, Rhinoceros, which depicts the population of a small town falling victim to a mass metamorphosis, and the impact fascism had on Ionesco's closest friends (Eliade included).

In 2000, Saul Bellow published his controversial Ravelstein novel. Having for its setting the University of Chicago, it had among its characters Radu Grielescu, who was identified by several critics as Eliade. The latter's portrayal, accomplished through statements made by the eponymous character, is polemical: Grielescu, who is identified as a disciple of Nae Ionescu, took part in the Bucharest Pogrom, and is in Chicago as a refugee scholar, searching for the friendship of a Jewish colleague as a means to rehabilitate himself.In 2005, the Romanian literary critic and translator Antoaneta Ralian, who was an acquaintance of Bellow's, argued that much of the negative portrayal was owed to a personal choice Bellow made (after having divorced from Alexandra Bagdasar, his Romanian wife and Eliade disciple).She also mentioned that, during a 1979 interview, Bellow had expressed admiration for Eliade.

The 1988 film The Bengali Night, directed by Nicolas Klotz and based upon the French translation of Maitreyi, stars British actor Hugh Grant as Allan, the European character based on Eliade, while Supriya Pathak is Gayatri, a character based on Maitreyi Devi (who had refused to be mentioned by name). The film, considered "pornographic" by Hindu activists, was only shown once in India. In addition to The Bengali Night, films based on, or referring to, his works, include: Mircea Eliade et la redécouverte du Sacré (1987), part of the television series Architecture et Géographie sacrée, by Paul Barbă Neagră; Domnişoara Christina (1996), by Viorel Sergovici; Eu Adam (1996), by Dan Piţa; Youth Without Youth (2007), by Francis Ford Coppola.

Eliade's Iphigenia was again included in theater programs during the late years of the Nicolae Ceauşescu regime: in January 1982, a new version, directed by Ion Cojar, premiered at the National Theater Bucharest, starring Mircea Albulescu, Tania Filip and Adrian Pintea in some of the main roles.Dramatizations based on his work include La Ţigănci, which has been the basis for two theater adaptations: Cazul Gavrilescu ("The Gavrilescu Case"), directed by Gelu Colceag and hosted by the Nottara Theater, and an eponymous play by director Alexandru Hausvater, first staged by the Odeon Theater in 2003 (starring, among others, Adriana Trandafir, Florin Zamfirescu, and Carmen Tănase). In March 2007, on Eliade's 100th birthday, the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company hosted the Mircea Eliade Week, during which radio drama adaptations of several works were broadcast.In September of that year, director and dramatist Cezarina Udrescu staged a multimedia performance based on a number of works Mircea Eliade wrote during his stay in Portugal; titled Apocalipsa după Mircea Eliade ("The Apocalypse According to Mircea Eliade"), and shown as part of a Romanian Radio cultural campaign, it starred Ion Caramitru, Oana Pellea and Răzvan Vasilescu.Domnişoara Christina has been the subject of two operas: the first, carrying the same Romanian title, was authored by Romanian composer Şerban Nichifor and premiered in 1981 at the Romanian Radio;the second, titled La señorita Cristina, was written by Spanish composer Luis de Pablo and premiered in 2000 at the Teatro Real in Madrid.

Mircea Eliade-filozof şi istoric al religiilor,

Mircea Eliade (n. 13 martie S.V. 28 februarie 1907, Bucureşti - d. 22 aprilie 1986, Chicago), a fost un gânditor şi scriitor român. Filozof şi istoric al religiilor, Eliade a fost profesor la Universitatea din Chicago din 1957, titular al catedrei de istoria religiilor Sewell L. Avery din 1962, naturalizat cetăţean american în 1966, onorat cu titlul de Distinguished Service Professor. Autor a 30 de volume ştiinţifice, opere literare şi eseuri filozofice traduse în 18 limbi şi a circa 1200 de articole şi recenzii cu o tematică extrem de variată, foarte bine documentate. Opera completă a lui Mircea Eliade ar ocupa peste 80 de volume, fără a lua în calcul jurnalele sale intime şi manuscrisele inedite.

Copilăria şi adolescenţa

Născut în Bucureşti, a fost fiul lui Gheorghe Eliade (al cărui nume original fusese Ieremia şi al Jeanei născută Vasilescu. A avut o soră, Corina, mama semioticianului Sorin Alexandrescu.

Familia s-a mutat între Tecuci şi Bucureşti, în ultimă instanţă, stabilindu-se în capitală în 1914, şi şi-a achiziţionat o casă pe strada Melodiei (actualmente str. Radu Cristian la nr.1), în apropiere de Piaţa Rosetti, unde Mircea Eliade a locuit până târziu în adolescenţă.

După terminarea învăţământului primar la şcoala de pe strada Mântuleasa, Eliade devine elev al Colegiului Spiru Haret fiind coleg cu Arşavir Acterian, Haig Acterian, Petre Viforeanu, Constantin Noica şi Barbu Brezianu.

Devine interesat de ştiinţele naturii şi de chimie, ca şi de ocultism, şi a scris piese scurte pe subiecte entomologice. În ciuda tatălui său care era îngrijorat de faptul că-şi pune în pericol vederea şi aşa slabă, Eliade citeşte cu pasiune. Unul dintre autorii preferaţi este Honoré de Balzac. Eliade face cunoştinţă cu nuvelele lui Giovanni Papini şi cu studiile social-antropologice ale lui James George Frazer.

Interesul faţă de cei doi scriitori l-a dus la învăţarea limbilor italiană şi engleză; în particular începe să studieze persana şi ebraica. Este interesat de filosofie şi studiază lucrările lui Vasile Conta, Marcus Aurelius şi Epictet, citeşte lucrări de istorie şi în special pe Nicolae Iorga şi B.P Hasdeu. Prima sa opera a fost publicată în 1921 Inamicul viermelui de mătase urmată de Cum am găsit piatra filosofală.Patru ani mai târziu, Eliade încheie munca la volumul său de debut, volum autobiografic, Romanul Adolescentului Miop.

Eliade, gânditorul

Mircea Eliade avea o serioasă formaţie filozofică încă din România. După o pubertate dificilă de intens studiu solitar, începând din 1925 adolescentul este aproape unanim recunoscut ca "şef al generaţiei" sale. Încă de la vârsta de 14 ani, începuse să scrie articole de entomologie, care trădează o surprinzătoare imaginaţie, ceva mai târziu, primele romane. Romanul Gaudeamus, terminat în 1928, partea a doua din Romanul adolescentului miop, cuprinde informaţii autobiografice interesante despre prima întâlnire cu viitorul lui profesor de logică şi metafizică, Nae Ionescu, care avea să aibă o influenţă decisivă asupra carierei sale. Recunoscând talentul şi cunoştinţele lui Mircea Eliade, Nae Ionescu i-a dat o slujbă în redacţia ziarului Cuvântul. Deşi părerile posterităţii sunt împărţite, Nae Ionescu a avut meritul de necontestat de a fi sprijinit tinere talente ca Eliade sau Mihail Sebastian.



După moartea lui Eliade, acesta a fost atacat de Adriana Berger (cea care s-a ocupat de aranjarea hârtiilor din biblioteca lui Eliade incendiată pe 18 dec. 1985) cu acuzaţii de antisemitism, fără a aduce dovezi, prefigurând linia atacurilor repetate care au urmat. În România de după 1990 s-a început publicarea doar a unei părţi din cele patruzeci de volume de operă ştiinţifică şi literară, preferându-se reeditările, astfel că în douăzeci de ani nu s-a reuşit publicarea integrală a operei eliadeşti. Valorile spirituale promovate de Eliade au continuat să anime proiecte culturale şi după 1990, moment în care a (re)dobândit un statut de autor mitic, în sensul discuţiei în jurul unei opere neintegral publicată în România. Actualitatea scrierilor lui Eliade este probată de traducerea post-mortem a multora din scrierile sale (în spaniolă, italiană, portugheză etc.). În rândul tinerilor redescoperind libertatea religioasă, literatura fantastică şi fronda specifică tânărului Eliade s-a redeşteptat interesul pentru opera şi viaţa autorului.

Continuatorii

Evaluarea critică a posterităţii lui Eliade rămâne astfel importantă, tocmai datorită prestigiului şi imaginii culturale covârşitoare pe care un autor de factură enciclopedică, cu preocupări fascinante şi o biografie contradictorie continuă să o ofere. Congresul european de istorie a religiilor (Bucureşti, 20-23 Septembrie 2006) organizat de Asociaţia română de istorie a religiilor a dedicat o întreagă secţiune analizei operei lui Mircea Eliade.

Opere ştiinţifice

Yoga: Essai sur les origines de la mystique indienne (1936)

Cosmologie şi alchimie babiloniană (1937)

Comentarii la legenda meşterului Manole (1943)

Traité d'histoire des religions (1949)

Le Sacré et le Profane (1956)

Aspects du mythe (1963)

Le mythe de l'éternel retour (1969)

Le Chamanisme et les Techniques archaïques de l'extase (1974)

Opere literare

Maitreyi (1933)

Întoarcerea din rai (1934)

Huliganii (1935)

Domnişoara Christina (1936)

Nuntă în cer (1938)

Pe strada Mântuleasa (1968)

La ţigănci (1969)

Noapte de Sânziene (1971)

Bătrânul şi birocratul (1974)

Romanul adolescentului miop

Lucrările publicate în limba română

Romanul adolescentului miop, scris în 1927, publicat de Mircea Handoca abia în anul 1989, ediţie curentă, Humanitas, 2004

Gaudeamus, 1929 ediţie curentă, Humanitas, 2004

Isabel şi apele diavolului, 1929, ediţie curentă, Humanitas, 2003

Solilocvii, 1932

Maitreyi, 1933, roman indian

Oceanografie, 1934,

Întoarcerea din rai, 1934, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Lumina ce se stinge, 1934, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Alchimia asiatică, 1935 text integral în antologia Drumul spre centru, Univers, 1991

India, 1934, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Caietele maharajahului, 1934, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Huligani, 1935, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Şantier, Roman indirect, 1935, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Domnişoara Christina, 1936 ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Cosmologie şi alchimie babiloniană, 1937 text integral în antologia Drumul spre centru, Univers, 1991

Şarpele, 1937

Fragmentarium, 1938

Nuntă în cer, 1938

Secretul doctorului Honigberger, 1940, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Nopţi la Serampore, 1940 ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Mitul reintegrării, 1942

Salazar şi revoluţia în Portugalia, 1942

Jurnal portughez, scris în 1942, editat 2006

Insula lui Euthanasius, 1943, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2003

Comentarii la Legenda Meşterului Manole, 1943 în antologia Drumul spre centru, Univers, 1991

Pe strada Mântuleasa, 1968, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2004

Noaptea de Sânziene, 1971

În curte la Dionis, 1977, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2004

Tinereţe fără tinereţe, Nouăsprezece trandafiri, 1980, ediţie curentă Humanitas, 2004

Lucrările publicate în limbi străine

Os Romenos, latinos do Oriente, 1943, Despre Români, latinii orientului, apare în limba portugheză

Yoga, 1936, apare simultan în limbile franceză şi română

Tehnici ale Yoga, 1948

Yoga. Nemurire şi libertate, 1954

Făurari şi alchimişti, 1956

Tratatul de istorie a religiilor, 1949, ed. a doua, 1966

Mitul eternei reîntoarceri, 1949

Şamanismul şi tehnicile extazului, 1951

Imagini şi simboluri, 1952

Naşteri şi renaşteri, 1958

Mefistofel şi androginul, 1962

De la Zalmoxis la Genghis Han, 1970

Mituri, vise, mistere, 1957

Istoria credinţelor şi ideilor religioase, 1976-1983

Briser le toit de la maison, 1986

The Quest ( titlul versiunii în limba franceză este La Nostalgie des Origines), 1969

Sacrul şi profanul(1956)

Opere memorialistice

Jurnal, două volume (versiunea în limba română a fost restabilită de Mircea Handoca pornind direct de la manuscris)

Memorii, două volume, 1991 (autobiografia sa)

Jurnal portughez şi alte scrieri, Humanitas, 2006

Încercarea labirintului, ed. I, Dacia, 2000, ed. a II-a, Humanitas, 2006